BEYOND BALKANIZATIONPavel M. DolukhanovLu yna Doma«skaAli e Marie HaeusslerLeiu HeapostKen Ja obsValeriy I. Khartanovi hPhilip L. KohlNadezhda S. KotovaRi hard W. LindstromIlze LozeDmitriy NuzhnyiInna D. PotekhinaDmitriy TeleginVladimir I. TimofeevAleksander A. Yanevi hLeonid Zaliznyak 1V O L U M E 5 • 1998 BALTIC-PONTIC STUDIES61-809 Pozna« (Poland)�w. Mar in 78Tel. (061) 8536709 ext. 147, Fax (061) 8533373EDITORAleksander Ko±koEDITOR OF VOLUMELu yna Doma«skaKen Ja obsEDITORIAL COMMITEESophia S. Berezanskaya (Kiev), Aleksandra Cofta-Broniewska(Pozna«), Mikhail Charniauski (Minsk), Lu yna Doma«ska(�ód¹), Viktor I. Klo hko (Kiev), Valentin V. Otrosh henko(Kiev), Petro Tolo hko (Kiev)SECRETARYMarzena SzmytSECRETARY OF VOLUMEAndrzej RozwadowskiADAM MICKIEWICZ UNIVERSITYEASTERN INSTITUTEINSTITUTE OF PREHISTORYPozna« 1998ISBN 83-86094-04-4ISSN 1231-0344 BEYOND BALKANIZATIONPavel M. DolukhanovLu yna Doma«skaAli e Marie HaeusslerLeiu HeapostKen Ja obsValeriy I. Khartanovi hPhilip L. KohlNadezhda S. KotovaRi hard W. LindstromIlze LozeDmitriy NuzhnyiInna D. PotekhinaDmitriy TeleginVladimir I. TimofeevAleksander A. Yanevi hLeonid Zaliznyak1V O L U M E 5 • 1998 c© Copyright by B-PS and AuthorsAll rights reserved Cover Design: Eugeniusz SkorwiderLingvisti onsultation: Monika Woj ieszek Printed in PolandComputer typeset by PSO Sp. z o.o. w Poznaniu In Memoriam Priit Ligi (24 May 1958 | 28 September 1994) CONTENTSEDITORS' FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7Ken Ja obs, Lu yna Doma«ska, "BEYOND BALKANIZATION" { ANOUTLINE PROGRAM FOR A DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9Pavel M. Dolukhanov, THE NEOLITHIC WITH A HUMAN FACEOR DIVIDING LINES IN NEOLITHIC EUROPE? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13Ri hard W. Lindstrom, HISTORY AND POLITICS IN THE DEVELOPMENTETHNOGENETIC MODELS IN SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24Philip L. Kohl, NATIONAL IDENTITY AND THE USEOF THE REMOTE PAST IN THE CAUCASUS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34Vladimir I. Timofeev, THE EAST | WEST RELATIONSIN THE LATE MESOLITHIC AND NEOLITHICIN THE BALTIC REGION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44Ilze Loze, THE ADOPTION OF AGRICULTURE IN THE AREAOF PRESENT-DAY LATVIA (THE LAKE LUBANA BASIN) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59Dmitriy Telegin, MESOLITHIC CULTURAL-ETHNOGRAPHICENTITIES IN SOUTHERN UKRAINE: GENESIS AND ROLEIN NEOLITHIZATION OF THE REGION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85Dmitriy Nuzhnyi, THE UKRAINIAN STEPPE AS A REGIONOF INTERCULTURAL CONTACTS BETWEEN ATLANTICAND MEDITERRANEAN ZONES OF EUROPEAN MESOLITHIC . . . . . . . . . 102Leonid Zaliznyak, THE LATE MESOLITHIC SUBBASEOF THE UKRAINIAN NEOLITHIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120Aleksander A. Yanevi h, THE NEOLITHIC OF THE MOUNTAINOUSCRIMEA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146Nadezhda S. Kotova, THE ROLE OF EASTERN IMPULSE INDEVELOPMENT OF THE NEOLITHIC CULTURES OF UKRAINE . . . . . . . . 160Ali e Marie Haeussler, UKRAINE MESOLITHIC CEMETERIES:DENTAL ANTHROPOLOGICAL ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195Inna D. Potekhina, SOUTH-EASTERN INFLUENCES ONTHE FORMATION OF THE MESOLITHIC TO EARLY ENEOLITHICPOPULATIONS OF THE NORTH PONTIC REGION:THE EVIDENCE FROM ANTHROPOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226Leiu Heapost, GENETIC HETEROGENEITY OF FINNO-UGRIANS(ON THE BASIS OF ESTONIAN MODERN AND ARCHAEOLOGICALMATERIAL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232Valeriy I. Khartanovi h, NEW CRANIOLOGICALMATERIALON THE SAAMI FROM THE KOLA PENINSULA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248Referen es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262List of Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 Editor's ForewordThis volume ontains the majority of the papers presented during a onfe-ren e that took pla e on 16th-21st May, 1997 in �ód¹, Poland. The onferen e wasorganized by the Institute of Ar haeology, University of �ód¹ and Departementd'anthropologie, Universite de Montreal (Canada). The onferen e was funded bythe University of �ód¹ and by IREX (International Resear h & Ex hanges Board),whi h also supported this publi ation. The publi ation was partly founded by theUniversity of �ód¹ and by the Foundation of Adam Mi kiewi z University, too.The major questions of the onferen e were, 1) what is the urrent eviden efor eastern or southern in uen es in the development of eastern European Meso-lithi and Neolithi populations, and 2) to what extent are urrent politi al trends,espe ially the reassertion or, in some ases, the reation of ethni and nationalidentities, in uen ing our interpretations of the prehistori data.The idea for su h a onferen e ame into being through the o-organizers'long-term studies of the development of those prehistori human populations whi hinhabited the vast region stret hing north and east from the Oder river and Carpa-thian Mountains to the foothills of the Urals. In a tradition established in moderntimes by Gordon Childe, virtually all of the transformations of Eastern Europe'sNeolithi Age human lands ape have been assumed to be responses to prior de-velopments in the Balkan peninsula and Danube basin. We think that a body ofnew eviden e requires a renewed analysis of the distributions of ultural produ ts,peoples, and ideas a ross Eastern Europe during the Mesolithi through the EarlyMetal Age within a mu h wider geographi ontext than previously has been the ase. This in ludes giving adequate attention to the far-ranging intera tions of om-munities between the Ponti and Balti area with those lo ated in both the Cau asusand the Aralo-Caspian regions.We hope that this volume will ontribute to su h a redire tion of future ana-lyses. Lu yna Doma«skaKen Ja obs Editorial omment1. All dates in the B-PS are alibrated [see: Radio arbon vol.28, 1986, and thenext volumes℄ (other versions are ited for the wish of authors). Deviations fromthis rule will be point out in notes.2. The names of the ar haeologi al ultures (espe ially from the territory ofthe Ukraine) are standarized a ording to the English literature on the subje t (e.g.Mallory 1989). In the ase of a new term, the author's original name has beenretained. Balti -Ponti Studiesvol. 5: 1998, 146-159PL ISSN 1231-0344Aleksander A. Yanevi hTHE NEOLITHIC OF THE MOUNTAINOUS CRIMEAThe �rst Neolithi site, situated in the mountainous part of Crimea, has beendis overed at the beginning of the 20th entury [Moiseev 1918℄, and in the 1930sthe Neolithi period has been taken into onsideration in divisions of the StoneAge of Crimea for the �rst time [Bader 1940℄. In 1950-1980 new sites have beendis overed and investigated, and as a result of these a new system of divisions ofthe Crimea Neolithi ame into being [Kraynov 1960; Formozov 1962; Sh hepinskiy1968; Kolosov 1971; Telegin 1982℄. At the same time a new approa h on relativelyfast transition from hunting and food-gathering to farming and attle breeding inCrimea o ur as well as on lo al pig domesti ation [Kraynov 1960; Formozov 1962;Kolosov 1971℄. These approa hes are however in ontradi tion to the results of newresear h. The pro ess of the Neolithization of Crimea ran in more ompli ated waythan it had been thought before be ause hunter-gatherers and farmers ould o-existfor a long time. That pro ess re e ts the Neolithi of the mountain part of Crimea.1. PALEOECOLOGYCrimea, in respe t of topography, is divided into two parts: the north | whi his a plain, and the south | whi h is a mountainous part. Three main mountainranges belong to the mountains region: north with the height of up to 250 m abovesea level, entral | with the height of about 500 m, and south, the highest, rea hing800-1500 m. The pe uliarity of the main (the highest) range are immense plateauxon the mountain ridges.The limate of the peninsula has been, sin e the end of Early Holo ene, de�-nitely warm and humid, similar to the present one. Boreal warming is well availa-ble, espe ially in pollen diagrams of the Ker h sites [Matskevoy, Pashkevi h 1973℄,and in diagrams from the Shan-Koba settlement [Besusko, et al. 1998℄. It is alsore e ted in har oal analyses [Gammermann 1934℄ and mollus s (Helix albestins)analyses from the Late Mesolithi housing areas. During the limati optimum in 147the mid-Holo ene temperatures di�ered for 1-2 C from the present ones and thetotal fall for 100 mm at the outmost [Savina, Khotinskiy 1982℄.In a ordan e with the rhythm of limati hanges of the end of Early Holo- ene and in mid-Holo ene typi al vegetation zones were formed. In the north partof Crimea, steppes overed with a great variety of grasses developed [Matskevoy,Pashkevi h 1973; Pashkevi h 1982℄.An in reasing humidity in the mountainous part of Crimea aused the repla- ement of oniferous forests by de iduous trees growing in warm ir umstan es.Their omposition is available in har oal spe tra in Late Mesolithi mountainoussettlements [Gammermann 1934℄ and in pollen diagrams of the Shan-Koba site[Besusko, et al. 1998℄. Chara teristi spe ies are as follows: oak, bee h, maple androwan. At the end of the Late Holo ene in the mountainous part a typi al verti aldivision of vegetation developed. There were forest-steppe zones, bee h and oakforests and steppe on the north slopes [Rubtsov 1978:26-75℄. The presen e of thesezones has been on�rmed for the boreal and Atlanti periods by pollen analyses arried out by L. Besusko for Shan-Koba site [Besusko, et al. 1998℄. The investi-gation of fauna in the Late Mesolithi settlements of the se ond mountain rangegave similar results. They show a noti eable domination of forest fauna in relationto the steppe one [Vekilova 1971℄.At the de line of the Early Holo ene the pro ess of fauna omplexes formingin di�erent areas of the peninsula ame to the end. Forest fauna dominated in themountainous part; boars, deer and roe deer are known from the Late Mesolithi and Neolithi settlements. Fauna of open or half-open biotops | auro hs, donkeyand horse, is known only o asionally from the settlements whi h are situated innot far distan e from the steppe zone (Alimovskiy Naves, Zamil-Koba II) [Vekilova1971℄. Auro hs, bison, tarpan and donkey represent the fauna of the Crimea plain.Their bones dominate in osteologi al material of the Mesolithi and Neolithi set-tlements from that area. Saiga antelope and deer are also found in small amounts[Matskevoy 1977℄.2. THE LATE MESOLITHIC SUBSTRATUM OF THE MOUNTAINOUS CRIMEANEOLITHICTypologi al and statisti al analyses of the int material, based on the Robinson`sindex with mi roliths as a base, and on omparison of all ategories of artefa ts allowto distinguish �ve Late Mesolithi and Neolithi ultures in Crimea [Yanevi h 1995℄.Three of them are known for a long time, they are: Murzak-Koba, Kukrek and Tash--Air ultures [Bon h-Osmolovskiy 1934; Vekilova 1966; Kolosov 1971; Telegin 1982;Yanevi h 1987a, 1995℄. The other two ultures are symptoms of new Late Mesolithi and Neolithi ultural phenomena that have been worked out during re ent years| namely the Shpan and Alexeevo ultures [Yanevi h 1987b, , 1995℄. 148 F i g . 1. The map of the Tash-Air ulture sites. 1 - Tash-Air 1 ; 2 - Zamil-Koba 2; 3 - Alimovskiy Naves;4 - At-Bash; 5 - Kaya-Arasy; 6 - Denisovka; 7 - Petrovska Balka; 8 - Shpan-Koba; 9 - Buran-Kaya 3; 10- Adzy-Koba 2.There are two di�erent views on the genesis of the Tash-Air ulture. A or-ding to most of the spe ialists that ulture developed on the lo al Late Mesolithi substratum [Kraynov 1960:91-104; Formozov 1962:117; Sh hepinskiy 1968:121-133;Kolosov 1971:129-135; Yanevi h 1995℄. Only N.N. Danilenko onne ted the originof the Neolithi of the mountainous Crimea with the Kukrek ulture [Danilenko1969:189℄.Comparison of the Late Mesolithi and Neolithi int material shows geneti links between the Murzak-Koba and Tash-Air ultures. The Murzak-Koba ulture isrepresented by the following omplexes: Murzak-Koba [Bibikov 1940℄, Shan-Koba,layer 3 and 2, Fatma-Koba, layer 4, 3 and 2 [Bibikov 1966℄, Adzy-Koba 3 [Yanevi h1984℄, Laspi 7 [Telegin 1982℄, Shpan-Koba | the upper layer, Kara-Koba [Kolosov1960℄ and others. Sites of that ulture are situated ex lusively in the mountainouspart of Crimea. In the area of the se ond (mountain) range they o ur in abris, onplateaux and on open oastal sites.The Murzak-Koba ulture is hara terised by relatively highly developed bladete hnique. Pyramid ores prevail in its assemblages (51-89%; Fig. 2:49, 50, 77).There also o ur ores with double platform (7-43%; Fig. 2:51), pen il ores (Fig.2:52) are known as well (4%), they served to obtaining mi roblades.Among the Murzak-Koba ulture mi roliths geometri forms (72-100% of allthe mi roliths), ba ked bladelets (7%; Fig. 2:70, 71) and trun ated pie es (4%) sho-uld be mentioned. O asionally, the �wider points (3%; Fig. 2:76) and the Kukrekinserts (3%; Fig. 2:37, 72) also appear. Among the geometri mi roliths trapezes 149 F i g . 2. The Murzak-Koba ulture. Flint and horn tools. 150prevail (81-11%); their main type is a symmetri trapeze with steep retou h (Fig.2:7, 25-27, 60-61). The other type is formed by asymmetri trapezes, one-sided on- ave (Fig. 2:8-10, 30-31). A hara teristi type of the Murzak-Koba ulture are avery short, symmetri or asymmetri trapezes with not hed retou h on upper base(Fig. 2:11, 28, 62), so- alled Fatma-Koba trapezes. Segments o ur not numerously(5-23%; Fig. 2:14, 68), triangles are rare.In omparison with another tools, s rapers appear not in large amounts withinthe Murzak-Koba ulture (7-13%). They are usually made of blades but also s ra-pers on a ake that prevail in ertain assemblages, an be found. Straight and onvexs rapers on a blade (Fig. 2:17-18, 44-45, 75) and s rapers on a ake (Fig. 2:15-16)should be also mentioned, whereas burins are even less numerous than s rapers (me-rely 6%). Dihedral burins and burins on snap prevail (Fig. 2:21, 43, 48); burins ontrun ation (Fig. 2:80-82) are less numerous and they belong to so- alled Kukrek-typeburins (Fig. 2:53-54). The hara teristi feature of the Murzak-Koba assemblages isan o urren e of large amounts of blades with not hed retou h (54-66%).Among bone tools arrowheads, harpoons and frames [Bibikov 1977; Telegin1982; Kolosov 1960℄ are represented. Bone arrowheads are homogeneous, they have ir le or oval ross-se tion and are from 0,8 to 1,3 m in diameter, their length is| judging from well-preserved spe imens | about 7 m. An arrowhead from layer3 of Shan-Koba and the one from layer 3 of Fatma-Koba have an elongated groove(Fig. 2:83), and an arrowhead from Laspi 7 | two grooves (Fig. 2:56). The lengthof harpoons is 6-8 m and their diameter | 0,7-1 m. They have a symmetri rowof teeth (Fig. 2:58-59, 87-88).It is possible to distinguish three stages of the Murzak-Koba ulture deve-lopment on the basis of int tools te hnology and morphology (Fig. 2). The �rststage in ludes the Murzak-Koba, Shan-Koba (layer 3) and Fatma-Koba (layer 4)assemblages, the se ond one | the Fatma-Koba (layer 3), Adzy-Koba , Laspi 7,Shpan-Koba (layer 1-2 and 1-3) and the Kara-Koba assemblages, and the third |the Shan-Koba (layer 2), Shpan-Koba (layer 1-1) and Kukrek (layer 3).3. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TASH-AIR CULTURENowadays over 30 Tash-Air ulture sites are known. They are as follows:Tash-Air 1 (layer 8-5a), Zamil-Koba 2 (layer 8-5); [Kraynov 1960℄, Adzy-Koba 2[Yanevi h 1984℄, At-Bash [Formozov 1962℄, Kaya-Arasy (lower layer); [Sh hepin-skiy 1962℄, Buran-Kaya 3 (layer 3), Denisovka [Sh hepinskiy 1968℄, Zuya 1 [Vekilova1951℄ et . All of them are situated in the mountainous area of Crimea, in the se- ond mountain range or on plateaux (Fig. 1). In the mountains they are mainly abris,some of them are open. The open sites are situated on the plateau, usually on theedge of it, in the vi inity of springs. Apart from the two areas | the mountainousone and the forest one-sites of that ulture are not known. 151Flint produ tionChara teristi feature of the Tash-Air ulture is a high level of blade te hnique.Blades derive hie y from ores with single platform (40-74%, Fig. 3:17, 39-40;4:33, 35; 5:31-32). Spe ial types of ores with single platform are spe imens withround aking surfa e (Fig. 3:39; 5:32). Spe imens with double platform representthe se ond type of ores (31-51%; Fig. 4:34; 5:30). Other types are rare.The Tash-Air ulture mi rolithi te hnique is represented by geometri mi- roliths (89-93%) and ba ked bladelets (3-11%; Fig. 3:32; 4:10-14; 5:12). Amongthe geometri mi roliths trapezes play a signi� ant role (65-77%). Medium highspe imens with a at retou h (Fig. 3:1-2; 4:1-7; 5:1-6, 10) should be stressed asthe main type of the Neolithi trapezes of the mountainous part of Crimea. Theydi�er in proportions and size of the at retou h. High symmetri and asymmetri trapezes with steep retou h have also been registered. Segments are not so frequ-ent (23-25%). Nearly all the segments are of medium height and symmetri , withpredominan e of spe imens with a at retou h (Fig. 3:4-5, 31; 4: 9). Nevertheless,segments with a steep retou h are frequent, espe ially in late inventories (Fig. 3:4;5:8).S rapers are the most abundant group of tools (29-41% of all the retou hedartefa ts). There are s rapers, mainly straight ones, that onstitute the predominantgroup (Fig. 3:10, 13, 33-35; 4:16, 18-23, 30-31; 5:13-23). Double s rapers are s ar elyrepresented (Fig. 4:17; 5:24). S rapers on a ake o ur in the shape of massive semi--round s rapers (Fig. 3:16, 38; 4:24; 5:29). Burins do not form a large group (10%)and burin on snap is their main type (Fig. 3:14, 37;4: 25-29; 5:26). The hara teristi feature of the Tash-Air ulture assemblages are borers, whi h appear in relativelylarge amounts (6%) in the shape of rather big blades with a steep retou h (Fig. 5:25,27). Retou hed blades are numerous, while the other forms of retou hed tools o urin s anty amounts.Bone and horn produ ts serve as points, axes, knives, awls and pins frames. Abone tool from Tash-Air 1 (layer Va) [Kraynov 1960℄ seems to be very interesting;it di�ers from Mesolithi bone blades of Crimea and an probably be interpretedas a tool of a spe i� role. Horn frames are preserved mostly in parts; the only ompletely preserved spe imen originates from Zamil-Koba 2. It is made of a splitboar tusk [Kraynov 1960: Table 13:5, 7℄. PotteryA ording to the kind of admixture and ornamentation the Tash-Air ulturepottery an be divided into some groups of di�erent hronology. The �rst groupin ludes the earliest, not numerous fragments found at Tash-Air 1 (layer 6) and 152 F i g . 3. Tash-Air 1. Flint tools from layer 8 (1-17) and 7 (18-40). 153 F i g . 4. Tash-Air 1. Flint tools from layer 6. 154 F i g . 5. Tash-Air 1. Flint tools from layer 5a. 155 F i g . 6. Tash-Air 1. Pottery from layer 5a. 156Zamil-Koba (layer 6) [Kraynov 1960:33-34℄, they are bla k or dark grey and havean admixture of �ne sand. All the fragments are non-ornamental and ome fromvessel's body ex ept one part of the bottom.The se ond group omprises the pottery from Tash-Air (layer 5a), Zamil-Koba(layer 5) [Kraynov 1960℄, Kaya-Arasy (lower layer), At-Bash, Balin-Kosh [Fomozov1962℄ and Denisovka [Sh hepinskiy 1968℄ (Fig. 6:1-14). They are dark red, brown ordark brown fragments with arefully smoothed surfa e and they are parts of thi kvessels with a �ne admixture of rushed shells, limestone or quartz, ornamentedwith omb de oration or in ised lines. These ome from slightly pro�led vesselswith pointed bottoms, espe ially spe imens found at At-Bash and Balin-Kosh. The losest analogy an be found between that pottery in Surska-Dnieper ulture vesselforms [Danilenko 1969:189; Telegin 1971:6-7℄.There ar fragments from Tash-Air (layer 5a) and Zamil-Koba (layer 5; Fig.7:1-13) that onstitute the third pottery group. These have their yellow or brownsurfa e smoothed. They ome from thin, slightly porous vessels with an admixtureof rushed shells or limestone. De oration of geometri ompositions is made witha long omb. The similarity to the Surska-Dnieper and the Azov-Dnieper ulturepottery forms should also be stressed [Danilenko 1971℄. Periodization and hronologyBe ause of s ar e amounts of pottery the Tash-Air ulture periodization isbased on int produ tion development, with geometri mi roliths morphology takeninto spe ial onsideration. In reasing number of trapezes with at retou h in theTash-Air assemblages allows establishing the relative hronology for sites of that ulture. The role played by pottery as a determinant grows only in late phases ofthe Tash-Air ulture.Three stages an be distinguished in the development of the Tash-Air ulture.The earliest is represented by Tash-Air site 1 (layer 8 and 7) and Zamil-Koba site 2(layer 8 and 7). The hara teristi features of int tools assemblages are: at retou hon about 1/3 of mi roliths number and not very large ores sizes. The assembla-ges do not ontain pottery. Tash-Air 1 (layer 6), Zamil-Koba 2 (layer 6), At-Bash,Adzy-Koba 2 and others represent the se ond stage. Flat retou h is registered foralmost half of mi roliths, single trapezes with surfa e ompletely overed with atretou h also o ur. The feature of the greatest importan e for that stage is theappearan e of pottery. There are Tash-Air 1 (layer 5a), Zamil-Koba 2 (layer 5),Kaya-Arasy (lower layer), Buran-Kaya (layer 3), Denisovka and others that formthe third stage. Almost all of geometri mi roliths are overed with at retou h, ores are massive.The establishment of the absolute hronology of the Tash-Air ulture is diÆ ultbe ause of the la k of radio arbon dates. Lower hronologi al limit for the ulture 157 F i g . 7. Tash-Air 1. Pottery from layer 5a.under dis ussion is given by 14C dates of the se ond stage of the Murzak-Koba ulture: for lower layer of Shpan-Koba 6240±150 BC∗ [Yanevi h 1993℄ and forLaspi 7 series from 5500±380 to 7150±130 BC [Telegin 1982℄. On the ground of ondu ted 14C analyses it is possible to pla e tentatively the Tash-Air ulture overa span from the end of the 6th to the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. ∗ The author used an un alibrated version of the 14C hronology (Editor). 158 4. MESOLITHIC AND NEOLITHIC ECONOMY OF THE MOUNTAINOUS AREAOF CRIMEAA forest animal hunting was the base of the Mesolithi and Neolithi e onomyof the area under dis ussion. The per entage of the forest animals rea hes 85%of the osteologi al material of the Shan-Koba ulture, 95% of the Murzak-Koba ulture and 90% | the Tash-Air ulture. As hunting in limited zones was moree�e tive by means of bows and arrows, it aused the situation that they were themain equipment of the mountainous Crimea hunters. Dire t eviden e is providedby geometri mi roliths domination | used, as mentioned above, as arrowheadsat Shan-Koba and Tash-Air ultures. Judging from ethnographi al and histori alanalogies [Kroeber 1925; K�uhn 1952; Lin Jao Chua, Cheboksarov 1961; Mellaart1967℄ following methods were pra tised: approa hing, hase, battue | in ase ofdeer, approa hing when hunting roe-deer, battue | in boar hunting.In e onomy of the mountainous Crimea population land snail (Helix albestins) olle ting was of main importan e. At numerous settlements their shells were found.They onstituted a main ontent of a ultural layer at Laspi 7 [Telegin 1982:90-92℄.Colle ting plants was obvious as well. Fishing was a omponent of e onomy butregarding s ar e �sh sour es in Crimea, it played a se ond-rate role. Only at Kara--Koba [Kolosov 1960℄ an abundan e of �shbone was found.The annual e onomi y le of the mountainous Crimea population was dividedinto the two main periods: winter period in the se ond mountain range zone andsummer one on plateaux. These y les guaranteed the best use of food supplies ofthe mountain area. The se ond mountain range area sites were used only in oldperiods. About 90% of deer and roe deer on entrate in oak forests in wintertime.Settlement of the se ond mountain range area is eviden ed by overing of bird,boar, roe-deer skulls with their horns ut as well as remains of wandering �sh(Salmo trutta) in monthly y les in ultural layers in winter. Winter hara ter ofthat settlement is shown by usage of abris with south or west exposition and byreli s of buildings | for instan e at Shan-Koba and Zamil-Koba II [Bibikov 1977℄.Mesolithi and Neolithi settlements are with no doubt onne ted with summerperiods | in all probability | with summer migrations of wild animals to subalpinemeadows and steppes. In summer there are 30% of the mountainous area on plate-aux while in winter, for the reason that the overing of snow, only 5% . Boar boneslying (in monthly y les) at Shan-Koba as well as the topography of the settlementsindi ate the settlement on plateaux. They are situated in open areas, entirely notsheltered from the winter winds, rea hing a speed of 42 m/se .The development of gathering | hunting e onomy in the mountainous forestof Crimea is divided into three stages. In the �rst, the Early Mesolithi stage thee onomy was forming; it ended in the turn of Holo ene. The se ond, Late Mesolithi stage (Boreal and the beginning of Atlanti period) was a full bloom time of thattype of e onomy. Only the forest animals were the aim of hunting. As a result ofspread of ora of warm area and mollus s, food-gathering be ame one of the leading 159bran hes of e onomy. Dis overies of spe ialised tools (like harpoons), and �shers'settlements (Kara-Koba) show an in reasing role of �shing. An intensi� ation ofe onomy led to stri tly de�ned seasons | using natural sour es on plateaux insummer and in the se ond mountain range in winter.The third stage, the Neolithi one, in the Atlanti period, was a ontinuationof des ribed type of e onomy. As in the previous ase, a forest animal hunting wasof the greatest importan e. The per entage of animals hunted this way was 70-80%of all animals. Wide spread of bows and arrows is indi ated by numerous geometri mi roliths at the Tash-Air ulture sites. Food-gathering, as well as �shing, was stillpra tised. Nevertheless, domesti animals bones (espe ially pigs) were found at theNeolithi sites of the mountainous Crimea [Kraynov 1960℄. So, it was the Neolithi period when an integration of two types of e onomy took pla e, and it was breedingthat played a se ond-rate role. That stage was a phase of onsolidation | a ordingto M. Zvelebil [1986℄ and his model of farming | breeding e onomy formation.5. SUMMARYThe investigations of the mountainous Crimea Neolithi period give the pi tureas follows:1. The pro ess of forming and development of the mountainous Crimea ultureshad an auto htoni hara ter. The Neolithi has been formed here on the basisof lo al Late Mesolithi . Flint produ tion is a ontinuation of the Murzak-Koba ulture produ tion, and it also refers to the Neolithi bone and horn tools. Thepottery shows in uen es from the north oast of the Bla k Sea, espe ially from theSurska and Azov ultures.2. The type of Late Mesolithi e onomy was the base for the pro ess of Neo-lithization of the dis ussed part of Crimea. The Neolithi e onomy is a furtherdevelopment of the e onomy of the Late Mesolithi hunters, gatherers and �shersof mountain forests. Translated by M. Woj ieszek ABBREVIATIONSAR { Ar heologi ke rozhledy, Praha.AP { Ar heologia Polski, Wro ªaw.AJPA { Ameri an Journal of Physi al Anthropology, New York.CA { Current Anthropology, Chi ago.KSIA { Kratkiye Soobsh heniya Instituta Arkheologii AkademiiNauk USSR, Moskva.KSIA (Ukraine) { Kratkiye Soobsh heniya Instituta Arkheologii AkademiiNauk USSR, Kiev.KSOGAM { Kratkie Soobs heniya OdesskogoGosudarstvennegoArkhe-ologi heskogo Muzeya, Odessa.MASP { Materialy po Arkheologii Severnogo Pri hernomorya,Kiev.MIA { Materialy i Issledovaniya po Arkheologii, Moskva.SA { Sovetskaya Arkheologiya, Moskva.SAA { Sovet Anthropology and Ar haeology, Moskva.SE { Sovetskaya Etnogra�ya, Moskva.REFERENCESAdovasio J.M., So�er O., Kl�ima B.1996 Upper Palaeolithi �bre te hnology: interla ed woven �nds from Pavlov I,Cze h Republi , . 26,000 years ago. Antiquity 70 (269):526-534.Alekseev V.P.1969 Proiskhozhdeniye narodov Vosto hnoy Evropy. Moskva.1974 Proiskhozhdeniye narodov Kavkaza. 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Pomorska 9691-402 �ód¹, Polande-meil: Lu ynad�krysia.uni.lodz.plAli e Marie Haeussler2548 East Georgia Av.Phoenix A2 86016, USAe-meil: agamh�asuvm.inre.asu.eduLeiu HeapostInstitute of History of EstoniaRuutli 6Tallinn EE0101EstoniaKen Ja obsDep. d'anthropologieU. de MontrealCP 6128 Su . Centre-VilleMontreal Q H3C 3J7, Canadae-mail: ja obsk�ere.umontreal. aValeriy I. Khartanovi hMuseum of Anthropology and EthnologySt. Petersburg 199034Universitetskaya nab. 3Russiae-mail: khartan�anth.mae.spb.suPhilip KohlDepartments of Anthropologyand So iologyWellesley College106 Central StreetWellesley, Massa husetts 02181, USAe-mail: pkohl�wellesley.eduNadezhda S. KotovaInstitute of Ar haeologyNational A ademy of S ien e of Ukraine254655 Kiev, UkraineRi hard Lindstrom 425 N. Genesee ave.Los Angeles, CA 90036, USAe-mail: rlindstrom�getty.eduIlze Biruta LozeUniversity of LatviaInstitute of History1 A ademi an sq., RigaLV-1050 LatviaFax 371-7225044Dmitriy NuzhnyiInstitute of Ar haeologyNational A ademy of S ien e of Ukraine254655 Kiev, UkraineGeroiv Stalingrada 12e-mail: ira�iarh.kiev.uaInna D. PotekhinaInstitute of Ar haeologyNational A ademy of S ien e of Ukraine254655 Kiev, UkraineGeroiv Stalingrada 12Fax (044) 418-33-06Vladimir I. TimofeevInstitute of Ar haeologyRussian A ademy of S ien eDvortsovaya nab. 18191065 St. Petersburg, RussiaFax 812 395 08 93Dmitriy Ya. TeleginInstitute of Ar haeologyNational A ademy of S ien e of Ukraine254655 Kiev, UkraineGeroiv Stalingrada 12Fax (044) 418-33-06Aleksander A. Yanevi hInstitute of Ar haeologyNational A ademy of S ien e of Ukraine254655 Kiev, UkraineGeroiv Stalingrada 12Fax (044) 418-33-06Leonid ZaliznyakInstitute of Ar haeologyNational A ademy of S ien e of Ukraine254655 Kiev, UkraineGeroiv Stalingrada 12Fax (044) 418-33-06 Vol.1: Weapons of the tribes of the Northern Ponti zone in the 16th{10th enturies B.C., by Vi tor I. Klo hko.Vol.2: Nomadism and pastoralism in the ir le of Balti {Ponti early agrarian ultures: 5000{1650 BC, edited by Aleksander Ko±koVol.3: Cemeteries of the So�evka type: 2950{2750 BC, edited by AleksanderKo±koVol.4: Eastern exodus of the Globular Amphora People: 2950 - 2350 BC, editedby Aleksander Ko±ko.Orders regarding B-PS should be adressed dire tly to the Editorial OÆ e(Balti -Ponti Studies, Institute of Prehistory, �w. Mar in 78, 61-809 Pozna«,Poland).This publi ation was supported by a grant from the International Resear h& Ex hanges Board, with funds provided by the U.S. Department of State(Title VIII), The National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH), and theJohn D. and Catherine T. Ma Arthur Fundation. None of these organiza-tions is responsible for the views expressed.The publi ation was partly founded by the University of �ód¹ and by theFoundation of Adam Mi kiewi z University too. ISBN 83-86094-04-4ISSN 1231-0344