Książki/rozdziały (WAr)

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Treasures of Time. Research of the Faculty of Archaeology of Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań
(Faculty of Archaeology, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, 2021) Żurkiewicz, Danuta
This publication presents the current scientific interests creatively developed by such teams at the Faculty of Archaeology of Adam Mickiewicz University. The research of these teams covers vast areas in time and space, summing up at least the last 9,000 years of prehistory. The following articles, arranged in chronological order, allow us to explore the prehistory of various areas.
Archaeology under a microscope: research at the ArchaeoMicroLab of the Faculty of Archaeology Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań
(Faculty of Archaeology, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, 2021-12) Kurzawska, Aldona; Sobkowiak-Tabaka, Iwona; Piątkowska, Grażyna; Martini, Sarah; Rand, Asta
This article presents the newly established ArchaeoMicroLab – the Laboratory of Microscopic Analysis in Archaeology – in the Faculty of Archaeology at Adam Mickiewicz University, its equipment, and the scope of research carried out in this facility. Microscopic analyses are essential research tools used in archaeology for examining artefacts and traces of their use, organic remains, pigments, and many other objects. The use of high magnification enables researchers to capture interesting details that are not visible at the macroscopic level. The article discusses different categories of artefacts, samples and the possibilities of their examination in the laboratory.
Are we where we wanted to be? Modernist tendencies versus the postmodern reality of archaeology. Some remarks on the methodology of archaeologists at Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań
(Faculty of Archaeology, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, 2021-12) Minta-Tworzowska, Danuta; Piątkowska, Grażyna; Martini, Sarah; Rand, Asta
This article attempts to define the place where the Poznań University’s methodology of archaeology finds itself. The question contained in the title – a are we where we wanted to be? – requires an answer that considers the extent to which the modernist assumptions of archaeo- logy, in which we grew up, have been fulfilled, and to what extent we function in the postmodern world. The article presents the rationale for this methodology, showing some variation in the views of its representatives, starting with the founder of the school, Jan Żak, through his stu- dents to the next generation. Recognizing the polyphonic nature of this scholarship, an attempt was made to group these studies into specific issues, which are: reflection on the methodology and theory of archaeology; its inspirations and proposals; relations between theory, methods, and practice; issues of archaeological sources as ones reflecting methodological discussions in the diachronic approach; the past explored in the present; emerging fields of research such as landscape studies; and social archaeology, initiated at Adam Mickiewicz University with the work of Ciesielska on social theory. For many years, the concept of social archaeozoology has also been developed, and studies on memory, identity, children and childhood, among others, have been conducted. The broadening of research fields is an unquestionable achievement of the postmodern (post-processual) as well as post-postmodern reorientation, marking the world in which we function.
Rock art as a source of contemporary cultural identity: a Siberian-Canadian Comparative Study
(Faculty of Archaeology, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, 2021-12) Rozwadowski, Andrzej; Piątkowska, Grażyna; Martini, Sarah; Rand, Asta
This brief article is an introduction to a research project that examines the contemporary re- ception and re-interpretation/re-vitalization of prehistoric rock art and, more specifically, the re/ use of rock art motifs by present-day artists in Siberia and Canada. During the second half of the 20 th century, new artistic trends emerged in both regions, wherein artists significantly drew upon the heritage of indigenous peoples. In Canada, this phenomenon is mainly connected to works created by First Nations artists, while in Siberia it concerns a broader spectrum of image makers from indigenous and non-indigenous backgrounds. As a result, how the past is drawn upon in these two geographical regions involves differing perspectives, though some common trends can be observed. How do the artists link the past with the present through rock art, and to what extent do the images provide them with a source of identity? These are the questions examined by the project.
Polish archaeological research in the Iberian Peninsula
(Faculty of Archaeology, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, 2021-12) Krueger, Michał; Piątkowska, Grażyna; Martini, Sarah; Rand, Asta
The aim of this article is to present the documented achievements of Polish archaeologists carrying out research on the earliest history of the Iberian Peninsula. As a result of a li- brary query and community interviews, the main areas of activity of Polish archaeologists over the past decades were located, which were mainly in Galicia and Andalusia. The main centres conducting research activities in the Iberian Peninsula are the University of Warsaw, the University of Łódź, and Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań. In recent decades, Polish scientific initiatives in the field of archaeology of the Iberian Peninsula have covered various aspects of field and archival research.
Archaeological research of the Gothic Church of the Blessed Virgin Mary on the island of Ostrów Tumski, Poznań
(Faculty of Archaeology, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, 2021-12) Antowska-Gorączniak, Olga; Piątkowska, Grażyna; Martini, Sarah; Rand, Asta
Between 1999 and 2015 an archaeological research of the interior and the immediate vicinity of the Church of the Blessed Virgin Mary on the island of Ostrów Tumski in Poznań was con- ducted. This hall church, whose consecration took place in 1448, is part of the architecture style connected with the workshops of Master Builder Hinrich Brunsberg. Interestingly, the traceries of the study church windows correspond to similar elements from the churches in Brandenburg and Chojna (Brunsberg’s work). But the fragments of Gothic pinnacles from the gable (according to written sources) were probably built by Lorek from Kościan. Also, the tracery decoration at the western portal of the Poznań cathedral, which was discovered during the post-war renovation works, confirms the presence of a similar façade decoration of the Poznań cathedral to that in Brandenburg. What is more, a fleuron found in the church of the Church of the Blessed Virgin Mary on the island of Ostrów Tumski is analogous to the same decorative element of the town hall in Tangermünde. This suggests that the workshops associated with that master builder, most probably participated in the rebuilding of the Poznań cathedral at the turn of the century (XIV/XV) and in the designing of the St Mary’s Church, which was completed after Brunsberg’s death. The archaeological research included the cemetery that was operational from the 2 nd half of the 15 th century to the end of the 18 th century, during which time, the deceased were buried inside the church. It was also where remains of several brick tombs/crypts were discovered. The youngest burial is an ossuary found in the middle of the nave, which contains bones moved there from the cathedral in 1784-1785. The brick and stone wall enclosing the cemetery was built in 1465-1466. Originally, the church and the cemetery were situated on a small hill, the slopes of which were reinforced.
Research on Kolegiacki Square in Poznań (St. Mary Magdalene Parish Collegiate Church)
(Faculty of Archaeology, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, 2021-12) Ignaczak, Marcin; Sikorski, Andrzej; Dębski, Artur; Sikora, Mateusz; Piątkowska, Grażyna; Martini, Sarah; Rand, Asta
An interdisciplinary archaeological study of St. Mary Magdalene parish collegiate church, the largest in the city of Poznań, the adjacent cemetery, and the building development after these were decommissioned (the New Market, the municipal bathhouse, the fire basin from World War II, the lawn (with flower beds), and the car park) was carried out between 2016 and 2021 in Kolegiacki Square. This was the largest archaeological project carried out to date in the Old Town. In addition to architectural foundations, the result of this project is thousands of graves with enormous significance for not only the history of the former church, but also for Poznań and Poland. To some extent, this is confirmed by the European character of some funerary findings, including the so-called pearl mob cap and devotional items in graves, crypts, and ossuaries. In the temple walls and chapels, representatives of distinguished families and members of guilds found their resting place; epitaph stones and ceremonial tombstones were placed here.
Poznań in the early Middle Ages
(Faculty of Archaeology, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, 2021-12) Kóčka-Krenz, Hanna; Antowska-Gorączniak, Olga; Sikorski, Andrzej; Piątkowska, Grażyna; Martini, Sarah; Rand, Asta
The information contained in the oldest written sources reveals that Poznań was the seat of the Bishop of St. Peter’s Church and emphasises the military strength of the stronghold during the reign of Bolesław the Brave (Chrobry). They do not, however, provide any data about the size, fortifications, or development of the area covered by the stronghold or about the processes that transformed its buildings. As the written sources seem laconic, archaeologists must rely on the results of their research to reconstruct a picture of how the stronghold functioned. They reveal that in the second half of the 10 th century, the prince/duke possessed a stone palas in the stronghold of Poznań with a separate reception hall, chancellery office, and treasury, as well as a stone palace chapel used for private devotion. Adjacent to the palas was a wooden building that was a goldsmith’s workshop – one of the specialized work- shops that fulfilled the needs of the court. The nearby paved square was probably surrounded by other buildings serving as courtly workshops. The second section of the stronghold, adjacent to the east, contained in its centre the cathedral church and the buildings that be- longed to wealthy people associated with the ruler who performed military and administrative functions on his behalf. The third (northern) segment of the complex was probably intended for economic purposes. On the other hand, the fortified site of Zagórze was inhabited by a group of people who performed service functions for the rest of the stronghold’s inhabitants. There is no question, therefore, that Poznań was a mighty fortalice that guarded approaches to the interior of the state, a stronghold which had administrative, economic, and sacral functions that was the residence of the first Piasts and constituted the main point of support in the management of their domain.
The stronghold in Grzybowo and its settlement base in the context of in-depth interdisciplinary research
(Faculty of Archaeology, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, 2021-12) Danielewski, Marcin; Piątkowska, Grażyna; Martini, Sarah; Rand, Asta
This article covers the issues connected with the early medieval stronghold in Grzybowo, which was built in the years 919 to 923 (dendrochronological dating). Its second construction phase took place in the years 929 to 935 and another at the beginning of the next decade of the 10 th century. This complex belongs to the ‘major settlements of the early Piast state’ and has been systematically excavated since the end of the 1980s. The research conducted over the last few years (2018 to 2020), implemented within project No. UMO-2017/25/B/HS3/00016 and financed by the National Science Centre, has provided plentiful new results, but also has confirmed several older hypotheses concerning early medieval Grzybowo. Thanks to the results of this works, it was possible to demonstrate that the stronghold in the form known today (Site 1) primarily consisted of two parts, which in the 10 th century comprised one of the largest settlement complexes in the Greater Poland at that time. An important element supplementing this settlement picture is a craft settlement (Site 6), traces of which were recorded to the south and east of the stronghold. In the course of this research, both in relation to the stronghold and the craft settlement, further excavations and non-invasive research methods were implemented, including ALS LiDAR (Airborne Laser Scanning and Light Detection and Ranging), Aerial Archaeology, magnetic prospection, GPR (Ground- Penetrating Radar), ERS (Electrical Resistivity Survey) and ERT (Electrical Resistivity Tomog- raphy). When necessary and possible, the results of these analyses were verified through excavation. As a result of this combined research, the stronghold complex in Grzybowo is becoming a better understood archaeological site.
Barrows in the Skirts of the Forest: Excavation of a Wielbark culture cemetery at Mirosław 37, Ujście commune, Piła district, Greater Poland Voivodeship
(Faculty of Archaeology, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, 2021-12) Michałowski, Andrzej; Piątkowska, Grażyna; Martini, Sarah; Rand, Asta
Archaeological excavations carried out at site 37 in Mirosław since 2016 have revealed a barrow cemetery of the Wielbark culture. An enormous amount of data hitherto collected has greatly facilitated better understandings of the settlement patterns of the population represented by this cultural group in the northern part of Greater Poland. This information provides a truly compelling and valuable contribution into the study of the burial customs of communities inhabiting northern Greater Poland during the Roman Iron Age period. As a result of this work, two of seven preserved mounds were examined. These contained two female burials: an inhumation burial, dated to phase B2/C1 deposited in Barrow 7 and a cremation burial dated to phase C1a deposited in Barrow 1. Also, other objects were recorded in the area of the mounds, in particular traces that are evidence of metallurgical production. What is more, a fragment of the plane part of the site was identified using non-invasive research methods – magnetometer prospection. A part of this area was examined by means of excavation, which confirmed the occurrence of both burial goods (a burial that was first exhumed in antiquity, was possibly made from another, leveled burial mound) as well as other objects, present in the cemetery and related to the funeral activities. Additionally, the zone between Barrows 6 and 7 yielded the burial of a small child. The excavations have stimulated numerous research questions which have not yet been satisfactorily answered and are vital for describing the structure of the cemetery and providing its full chronology.
Some Remarks on the Problems of Art Research in Archaeology using the Example of Greek and Roman Sculpture
(Faculty of Archaeology, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, 2021-12) Bugaj, Ewa; Piątkowska, Grażyna; Martini, Sarah; Rand, Asta
This article briefly presents some of the author’s research on art in archaeology, focusing especially on her contributions to research on Greek and Roman sculpture and its historiography. In particular, the problems of research on copies and imitations in Roman culture, Republican portraits of the elderly, the style of Greek sculpture, and the cult statue of Aphrodite of Cnidus are discussed.
About the ‘interim’ or discovering the depths of the pre-Roman Iron Age
(Faculty of Archaeology, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, 2021-12) Michałowski, Andrzej; Teska, Milena; Krzyżanowska, Marta; Kaczmarska, Patrycja; Frankiewicz, Mateusz; Żółkiewski, Marek; Niedzielski, Przemysław; Piątkowska, Grażyna; Martini, Sarah; Rand, Asta
The pre-Roman Iron Age, i.e. the last five last centuries BC, is one of the most mysterious periods in Polish prehistory and constitutes an extremely interesting research issue, which help concentrate the studies on it, into a compact group of research problems. The studies on the pre-Roman Iron Age carried out by the group of researchers at the Faculty of Archaeology of the Adam Mickiewicz University are based on the research traditions of Poznań archaeology. The focal point of work in recent years has been settlement pottery, which is a mass source acquired during excavations whose potential has not yet been fully exploited. One way to better understand the possibilities that this type of mass material can bring has been exploitation of the potential of archaeometry. The ongoing studies on the problems of the pre-Roman Iron Age strive to detail and explain the processes and changes occurring at the time. They fit into the Poznań tradition of studies on this period, being a continuation of previous work undertaken on its intricate issues – empowering it and leading it out of the titular ‘interim’, placing it in the fully deserved centre of research interests.
Migration and kinship in East-Central Europe in the 1st half of the 2nd millennium BC
(Faculty of Archaeology, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, 2021-12) Makarowicz, Przemysław; Piątkowska, Grażyna; Martini, Sarah; Rand, Asta
This article presents the results of research conducted within the framework of a multi- disciplinary project investigating the issues of migration, mobility, and kinship of the Middle Bronze Age communities inhabiting East-Central Europe, more specifically the Upland belt of modern Poland and western Ukraine. The main objective of the project is to verify or falsify two hypotheses provided by the literature. The first one concerns the issue of the migration of the Trzciniec Cultural Circle (TCC) population from the Lowland belt of East-Central Europe south- wards into the Upland belt. The other considers kinship as a fundamental factor generating the emergence, rules of aggregation, and shape of the ‘Trzciniec’ social structures. In addition, the project addresses a number of issues related to the social structure, rituals, and diet of the study communities. An application of the methods that are specific to humanities (archaeology and cultural anthropology) and sciences (physical anthropology, molecular biology – genetics, isotope geochemistry, physics, chemistry, and statistics), and possible genetic affiliations of the ‘Trzciniec’ communities and the population of the preceding Early Bronze Age groups (mainly the Mierzanowice and Strzyżów cultures) are presented; the potential kinship pattern of the deceased buried in the graves representing these cultural groups are also indicated. The results of Bayesian modelling of the 14 C date series for the TCC collective burials – a key factor in the study of the kinship and the mortuary rituals of this group – are highlighted. Finally, the paper discusses the current results of research on the mobility and diet of the communities from the late 3 rd and 2 nd millennia BC undertaken within the frame of this project as well as in cooperation with other research programmes.
Aspects of ancient warfare: Multidisciplinary research on war and warriors in Bronze Age Europe
(Faculty of Archaeology, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, 2021-12) Suchowska-Ducke, Paulina; Piątkowska, Grażyna; Martini, Sarah; Rand, Asta
The study of warfare among ancient societies – its nature, scale and impacts – has become an increasingly fertile multidisciplinary field of research in archaeology and related disciplines. This is particularly true for the European Bronze Age, an epoch that has produced iconic arte- facts, architecture, images, and written sources that speak about war and warriorhood. Modern research has made it sufficiently clear that, far from being the singular acts of heroic individ - uals, ancient warfare was common, brutal, and well-organized. However, war, as an extreme form of social interaction, has also been a driver for technological and economic development. From Scandinavia to the Mediterranean, the archaeological record has preserved rich traces of the warrior elite that was instrumental in transforming Bronze Age societies. This body of evidence is being studied with increasingly diverse analytical tools, ranging from use-wear analysis of weapons to forensic analysis of human remains and GIS-based spatial analysis. The following is a summary of author’s research on the multiple aspects and archaeological sources that surround the topics of war and warriors in Bronze Age Europe.
Metallurgy in the Early Bronze defensive settlement in Bruszczewo, site 5, Śmigiel commune, Kościan district: One more step on the way to the synthesis
(Faculty of Archaeology, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, 2021-12) Czebreszuk, Janusz; Piątkowska, Grażyna; Martini, Sarah; Rand, Asta
Long-term excavations carried out in the defensive settlement of the Únětice Culture in Bruszczewo (Śmigiel commune, Kościan district) have resulted in an abundant assemblage of artefacts related to metallurgy. These represent various ready-made products (i.e., ornaments, tools, and weapons), as well as some scrap prepared for smelting. Other finds included smelting by-products (metal prills/droplets) and unfinished and never used artefacts with preserved casting seams. Also, the artefact assemblage recorded at this site connected with metallurgy but made of other materials is unique in Europe. In this context, it is worth mentioning: tuyeres, melting pots, and clay footings, as well as a stone casting mould used for making open bracelets. This article presents an analysis and a description of these finds. The metal artefacts were analysed on the basis of the results of a metallurgical study, to which almost all metals recorded in Bruszczewo were subjected. Also, the applied chronological frame was based on the types of metal typical of the Únětice culture. The significant number of artefacts and their multi-aspect, archaeological and metallurgical analyses, place Bruszczewo among the key points on the map of knowledge of Early Bronze metallurgy on our continent. Moreover, this article indicates that the presented site offers great research potential that can be used in further studies into prehistoric metallurgical knowledge, including technological innovations.
From the cradle to the grave
(Faculty of Archaeology, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, 2021-12) Koliński, Rafał; Kolińska, Xenia; Piątkowska, Grażyna; Martini, Sarah; Rand, Asta
From the cradle to the grave, we are accompanied by the concepts of mortality and immortal- ity. We experience the first as humans but ascribe, unknown to us, the state of eternal being to the gods. In various models of the universe, death may mean the end of everything, a new beginning, or a state of waiting to join the ranks of the Immortals. In Mesopotamia, death means Perduring; souls of the dead were confined to Underworld, where they lasted in dark - ness, suffering thirst and hunger. At the beginning of the 2 nd millennium BC in Mesopotamia the attitude towards the dead is changing significantly. Cult of ancestors and repeated offerings to dead were meant to improve their condition, and, in turn, secure their support to the living. The GP26 chamber tomb discovered at the Tell Arbid site in northeastern Syria in 2009 by archaeologists of the Institute of Prehistory, Adam Mickiewicz University, is a perfect illustration of these changes. The underground chamber tomb built next to the house became the resting place of three generations of its inhabitants, judging from the fact that at least 15 people were buried there successively. Prestigious grave gifts testify to the wealth of the family, and the finds of sacrificial vessels and animal bones illustrate ceremonies performed during the funeral. The tomb was ritually closed by burying the dog in the shaft leading to its chamber. The tomb was avoided being robbed in antiquity, thanks to which archaeologists from the Adam Mickiewicz University could study it and shed light on the beliefs and splendor of the inhabitants of northern Mesopotamia dating back almost 4,000 years.
From clay you are
(Faculty of Archaeology, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, 2021-12) Koliński, Rafał; Piątkowska, Grażyna; Martini, Sarah; Rand, Asta
The people of Mesopotamia believed that they were created by the gods to serve the gods: to work for them in the fields and care for the herds of animals that, through sacrifice, provided the gods’ livelihood. Perhaps this is why mythological motifs are almost absent in the art of Assyria and Babylon. Two small fragments of stone decorated with a convex relief, discovered in 2013 by the archeological team of the Institute of Prehistory at the entrance to the Gūndk cave in Iraqi Kurdistan, belie this claim. They come from a relief scene originally hewn into the rock- face around 2200 BC, but blown up by vandals in the 1990s. Thanks to this recent discovery by the team carrying out the Upper Greater Zab Archaeological Reconnaissance Project in Iraqi Kurdistan and previous drawings of the relief made in 1850 and 1947, it can be proven that the scene showed the god Enki and the goddess Ninmah in the process of molding people out of clay, as described in Mesopotamian myths. Saved for posterity by archaeologists from Poznań, the fragments of the damaged relief are the only known examples of this unique scene.
When archaeology meets environmental sciences: the Bruszczewo site revisited
(Faculty of Archaeology, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, 2021-12) Niebieszczański, Jakub; Gałka, Mariusz; Hildebrandt-Radke, Iwona; Karpińska-Kołaczek, Monika; Kołaczek, Piotr; Lamentowicz, Mariusz; Rzodkiewicz, Monika; Piątkowska, Grażyna; Martini, Sarah; Rand, Asta
Settlement archaeology is often supported by geoarchaeology in which human habitation is drawn on the timeframe of landscape changes derived through interdisciplinary research. An example of a geoarchaeological approach to settlement study is the Bruszczewo Lake project conducted in Central-Western Poland. The area of Bruszczewo and the Samica River Valley witnessed human occupation since the Neolithic period and is most widely known for the presence of an Early Bronze Age fortified settlement. Previous research provided initial information about the presence of a lake and marshland in prehistoric and early historical times. A new geoarchaeological project aims to create a detailed environmental and landscape transformation history combined with the extensive knowledge of the archaeology of the area. Using GIS techniques, conventional drilling, and vibra-coring, a new set of data is brought to light and analysed in palaeoenvironmental terms. Constructed geological profiles across the valley revealed the basin’s morphology and provided insight into the subsequent landscape transformation phases, from the Late Glacial ribbon lake lasting until the end of the Bronze Age to the marshlands that thrived until the Early Medieval period. The ongoing analyses of samples derived from drillings provide a perspective for detailed reconstructions of landscape changes.
Kakucs-Turján: a multi-layered settlement in Central Hungary
(Faculty of Archaeology, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, 2021-12) Jaeger, Mateusz; Staniuk, Robert; Filatova, Sofia; Kulcsár, Gabriella; Piątkowska, Grażyna; Martini, Sarah; Rand, Asta
Investigations of the settlement of Kakucs-Turján have applied a multi-disciplinary approach to recognize the everyday reality of communities living in Early and Middle Bronze Age Hungary. Field prospection and preliminary excavations allowed characterization of the overall site parameters, while the subsequent excavation seasons provided evidence of a complex settlement history wherein a major transition from behaviors producing a flat to a multilayered site was identified as a major turning point. Analyses of material culture and botanical remains point to stable lifestyles and subsistence practices across generations of inhabitation of the settlement within which differential access to exotic resources and non-local objects was part of the way of life. This paper provides a state-of-the-art overview summarizing the main findings of the focal points of research at Kakucs-Turján.
The barrow culture of the Upper Dniester Basin in the 3 rd and 2 nd millennia BC: The Polish-Ukrainian research projects
(Faculty of Archaeology, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, 2021-12) Makarowicz, Przemysław; Romaniszyn, Jan; Rud, Vitalii
Since 2009, the international Upper Dniester Expedition has conducted field research (field-walking surveys, non-invasive and excavation) and analytical studies in the Eastern Transcarpathia. These investigations are part of a broader research programme – a study of ‘The Biocultural Borderland between the East and the West of Europe’. The projects concern a comprehensive reconnaissance of barrow cemeteries dated to the 3 rd and 2 nd millennia BC, located in the mixed forest-steppe and forest belt in the basin of the Upper Dniester River. For almost 1500 years, this type of funeral architecture shaped the ‘mortuary landscapes’ of the communities successively inhabiting that area. Hence, the barrow cemeteries are an important source for understanding the mechanisms and trajectories of cultural development in this part of Europe, and consequently the subject of intensive studies within several research projects. This article describes the aims and results of two already completed and one ongoing project in the Upper Dniester Basin. Thanks to the use of modern research methods, both in the field of archaeology and ‘archaeological sciences’, it has been possible to present a wide spectrum of regularities/principles concerning the ‘barrow landscapes’, the chronology of the creation of selected cemeteries, and the construction of regular, linear arrangements of barrows. Furthermore, the projects have and are providing large collections of archaeological (ceramic, lithic, metals, etc.), anthropological, archaeobotanical and archaeofaunal material for future analyses.

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